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They engaged in a variety of occupations and professions: All these factors—economic and spiritual—were practically reflected in public life: The Jewish population was also represented in the Latvian parliament. In the National Council which was formed during the first year of Latvian independence and existed until April , there were also representatives of the national minorities, including seven Jews, among them Paul Mintz later chairman of the Jewish National Democratic Party , who acted as state comptroller —21 , and Mordecai Dubin Agudas Israel. On May 1, , the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by a relatively democratic vote, was convened.
It was to function until October 7, , and included nine Jewish delegates who represented all groups in the Jewish population Zionists , National Democrats, Bundists , Agudas Israel. The last two were not reelected to the fourth parliament. On December 8, , the general bill on schools was passed by the National Council; this coincided with the bill on the cultural autonomy of the minorities. In the Ministry of Education, there were special departments for the minorities. The engineer Jacob Landau headed the Jewish department. A broad network of Hebrew and Yiddish schools, in which Jewish children received a free education, was established.
In addition to these, there were also Russian and German schools for Jewish children, chosen in accordance with the language of their families and wishes of their parents. These were, however, later excluded from the Jewish department because, by decision of the Ministry of Education, only the Hebrew and Yiddish schools were included within the scope of Jewish autonomy.
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In there were ninety-eight Jewish elementary schools with approximately 12, pupils and teachers, eighteen secondary schools with approximately 2, pupils and teachers, and four vocational schools with pupils and thirty-seven teachers. There were also government pedagogic institutes for teachers in Hebrew and Yiddish, courses for kindergarten teachers, popular universities , a popular Jewish music academy, evening schools for working youth, a Yiddish theater , and cultural clubs. There was a Jewish press reflecting a variety of trends.
This was part of a wider move to standardize Latvian usage in schooling and professional and governmental sectors. As a result, Jewish schools continue to operate while secular Yiddish schools were closed. Notably, Dubnow was among the Jews who fled from Germany to Latvia for safety in Latvia continued to take in refugees until the fall of All political parties and organizations were also abolished.
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Of Jewish groups, only Agudat Israel continued to operate. Jewish social life did, however, retain its vitality. Owing in part to the restrictions imposed on minorities including Jews, the influence of religion and Zionism increased, motivating some to return to the future Israel. This also increased the influence of the banned Social Democrats, while the Jewish intelligentsia gravitated toward Zionism. After first extracting Latvian agreement under duress—Stalin personally threatened the Latvian foreign minister, in Moscow, during negotiations—to the stationing of Soviet troops on Latvian soil, the Soviet Union invaded Latvia on June 16, Jewish civic and political leaders began to be arrested in August [6] The first to be arrested were the Zionist leaders Favid Varhaftig and Mahanud Alperin.
Dubin and other Jewish civic leaders, zionists, conservatives, and right wing socialists. Of all the ethnic groups so deported, Jews suffered proportionately more than any other, and were deported to especially harsh conditions. The deportations of Jewish civic leaders and rabbis, members of parliament, and the professional and merchant class only a week before Nazi Germany invaded the Baltics left the Jewish community ill-prepared to organize in the face of the invasion and immediately ensuing Holocaust.
Those deported included Constitutional Convention members I. Berzs, 1st and 3rd Saiema deputy and head of the Bund N. Maizels as well as other Jewish members of parliament. Men were separated from their families and sent to labor camps at Solikamsk in Perm , Vyatka , and Vorkuta , [6] [10] while their wives and children were sent to Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, and elsewhere. Dubins died after being deported a second time in Latvia was occupied by the Germans during the first weeks of the German-Soviet war in July It became part of the new Reichskommissariat "Ostland" , officially designated as " Generalbezirk Lettland ".
Baltic Sea Commission Executive Committee meeting
Otto-Heinrich Drechsler was appointed its commissioner general, with headquarters in Riga, the seat of the Reich Commissioner for Ostland, Hinrich Lohse. At the end of July the Germans replaced the military with a civil administration. One of its first acts was the promulgation of a series of anti-Jewish ordinances. A subordinate civil administration composed of local collaborationist elements was also established, to which Latvian general councillors were appointed.
Their nominal head was Oskars Dankers , a former Latvian army general. In mid-June , on the eve of Hitler 's attack on the Soviet Union, 14, citizens of Latvia, including several thousand Jews, were deported by the Soviet authorities to Siberia and other parts of Soviet Asia as politically undesirable elements. During the Nazi attack of Latvia a considerable number of Jews also succeeded in fleeing to the interior of the Soviet Union; it is estimated that some 75, Latvian Jews fell into Nazi hands.
Latvian-American Holocaust historian Andrew Andrievs Ezergailis argues that there was no " interregnum " period at all in most parts of Latvia, when Latvian activists could have engaged in the persecution of Jews on their own initiative. His account covers the period from the end of June up to October 15, Nevertheless, the Latvian Arajs Kommando played a leading role in the atrocities committed in the Riga ghetto in conjunction with the Rumbula massacre on 30 November One of the most notorious members of the group was Herberts Cukurs.
After the war, surviving witnesses reported that Cukurs had been present during the ghetto clearance and fired into the mass of Jewish civilians. According to another account Cukurs also participated in the Burning of the Riga synagogues.
Baltic Sea Commission Executive Committee meeting
At the instigation of the Einsatzgruppe, the Latvian auxiliary police carried out a pogrom against the Jews in Riga. All synagogues were destroyed and Jews were killed. At the end of and the beginning of , Jews deported from Germany, Austria , Czechoslovakia , and other German occupied countries began arriving in Latvia.
Some 15, "Reich Jews" were settled in several streets of the liquidated "greater Riga ghetto".
In about Jews from Kaunas Ghetto in Lithuania were brought to Riga and some of them participated in the underground organization in the Riga ghetto. The German occupying power in Latvia also kept Jews in "barracks camps", i. A considerable number of such camps were located in the Riga area and other localities.
The Salaspils concentration camp, set up at the end of , contained thousands of people, including many Latvian and foreign Jews. Conditions in this camp, one of the worst in Latvia, led to heavy loss of life among the inmates. When the Soviet victories in the summer of forced a German retreat from the Baltic states, the surviving inmates of the Kaiserwald camp were deported by the Germans to Stutthof concentration camp near Danzig , and from there were sent to various other camps.
About 1, Latvian Jews survived their internment in concentration camps; most of them refused repatriation and remained in the Displaced Persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy. Along with the rest of the survivors they eventually settled in new homes, mostly in Israel. In Latvia itself, several hundred Jews had managed to survive.
A public demonstration was held in Riga a few days after its liberation, in which sixty or seventy of the surviving Jews participated. Gradually, some of the Jews who had found refuge in the Soviet Union came back. According to the population census taken in the Soviet Union in , there were 36, Jews 17, men and 19, women; 1. It may be assumed that about 10, of them were natives, including Jewish refugees who returned to their former residences from the interior of Russia, while the remainder came from other parts of the Soviet Union.
About 48 percent of the Jews declared Yiddish as their mother tongue. The others mainly declared Russian as their language, while only a few hundred described themselves as Latvian-speaking. The others lived in Daugavpils and other towns.
According to private estimates, the Jews of Latvia in numbered about 50, The overwhelming majority of them lived in Riga, the capital, which became one of the leading centers of national agitation among the Jews of the Soviet Union. Underground religious and Zionist activity resulted in greater suspicion by authorities. On April 7, , the Soviet press published the "Declaration of the Special Government Commission charged with the inquiry into the crimes committed by the German-Fascist aggressors during their occupation of the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic".
This document devotes a chapter to the persecution and murder of Jews. The declaration lists Nazis held responsible for the crimes committed in Latvia under German occupation.
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On January 26, , the military tribunal of the Baltic Military District began a trial of a group of Nazi war criminals , among them Jeckeln, one of the men responsible for the Rumbula massacre at the end of He and six others were sentenced to death by hanging; the sentence was carried out in Riga on February 3, Other trials were held in the postwar Latvian SSR , but altogether only a small number of Germans and Latvians who had taken part in the murder of Latvian Jewry were brought to justice.
Latvians of varying backgrounds also took part in the persecution and murder of the Jews in the country outside Latvia. At the time of the German retreat in the summer of , many of these collaborators fled to Germany. Nevertheless, there were also Latvians who risked their lives in order to save Jews. The Jewish population of Latvia declined from 28, in to 22, in , when 18, of its Jews lived in the capital Riga.
Part of this was due to a high rate of emigration to Israel; the Soviet Union allowed limited numbers of Jewish citizens to leave the country for Israel every year. Between and , 13, Jews, or In —89 the Jewish birth rate was 7. Another major factor was immigration to Israel, which the Soviet Union allowed in limited numbers every year. In , there were 22, Jews in Latvia, who comprised some 0. That same year Soviet Union allowed unrestricted Jewish immigration, and 1, Jews emigrated from Latvia 1, of them from Riga. In , 3, Latvian Jews immigrated to Israel 2, of them from Riga.