Umar improved administration of the fledgling empire, ordering improvement of irrigation networks and playing a role in foundation of cities like Basra. To be close to the poor, he lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, Umar established the Bayt al-mal , [38] [39] [40] a welfare institution for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era.
Umar also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, who lived as religious minorities and were taxed while Muslims paid "Zakat" to finance the Byzantine—Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.
Since the Constitution of Medina , drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad , the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws and had their own judges. In , Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor died in a plague along with 25, other people.
Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury, moving away from the worship of God, accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties. When Umar was assassinated in , Uthman ibn Affan second cousin and twice son-in-law of Muhammad became the next caliph. As the Arabic language is written without vowels, speakers of different Arabic dialects and other languages recited the Quran with phonetic variations that could alter the meaning of the text.
When Uthman ibn Affan became aware of this, he ordered a standard copy of the Quran to be prepared. Begun during his reign, the compilation of the Quran was finished some time between and , and copies were sent out to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. The Quran and Muhammad discussed racial equality and justice notably in Muhammad's Farewell Sermon , [63] [64] [ unreliable source?
However, after Muhammad's death, the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area. As Uthman ibn Affan became very old, Marwan I , a relative of Muawiyah I , slipped into the vacuum, becoming his secretary and slowly assuming more control. When Uthman was assassinated in , Ali ibn Abi Talib , a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq.
Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, and Marwan I demanded arrest of the culprits. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict, which resulted in the first civil war the "First Fitna". Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in Six months later in , in the interest of peace, Ali's son Hasan , made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan—Muawiya treaty , Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he would be just to the people and not establish a dynasty after his death. He was killed in the Battle of Karbala the same year, in an event still mourned by Shia on the Day of Ashura.
In , Arab armies conquered Kabul , [74] and in pushed into the Maghreb. The Umayyad dynasty or Ommiads , whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams , the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from to Although the Umayyad family came from the city of Mecca , Damascus was the capital. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from Medina , which led to profound changes in the empire.
In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power. As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the Bayt al-mal and the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts mawali to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.
Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia.
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Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post- civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the Ummah , fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies [85] slandering the Prophet 's family [86] and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.
According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali. Uqba won battles against the Berbers and Byzantines.
Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period. Under the rule of Yazid I , some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if Husayn ibn Ali the descendent of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed.
Imam Husain's son, Imam Ali ibn Husain , was imprisoned along with Husain's sister and other ladies left in Karbala war. Due to opposition by public they were later released and allowed to go to their native place Medina. One Imam after another continued in the generation of Imam Husain but they were opposed by the Caliphs of the day as their rivals till Imam Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah came in power as first Caliph of Fatimid in North Africa when Caliphate and Imamate came to same person again after Imam Ali.
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This would ease in the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan , a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a currency for the Muslim world was minted. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world. Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests.
Under him the early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into Carthage and across to the west of North Africa. Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power. Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died.
He appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-Hajjaj , one of two prominent leaders the other was Qutayba ibn Muslim who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat.
Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to Damascus on becoming Caliph, remaining in Ramla. The intervention of Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.
Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II.
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Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. He was also faced with a revolt by Zayd ibn Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts.
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The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon , a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty. Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims , and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya believers in human free will.
He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of God and the Sunna.
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Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid , named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in , before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from until he was killed in He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus.
Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support.