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The idea of a modern project of improving the human population through a statistical understanding of heredity used to encourage good breeding was originally developed by Francis Galton and, initially, was closely linked to Darwinism and his theory of natural selection. Based on his biographical studies, Galton believed that desirable human qualities were hereditary traits, although Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory. Many of the early geneticists were not Darwinians, and evolution theory was not needed for eugenics policies based on genetic determinism.
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Eugenics became an academic discipline at many colleges and universities and received funding from many sources. Both sought support from leading clergymen and modified their message to meet religious ideals. Three International Eugenics Conferences presented a global venue for eugenists with meetings in in London, and in and in New York City. Eugenic policies were first implemented in the early s in the United States.
In addition to being practiced in a number of countries, eugenics was internationally organized through the International Federation of Eugenics Organizations. Early critics of the philosophy of eugenics included the American sociologist Lester Frank Ward , [39] the English writer G. Chesterton , the German-American anthropologist Franz Boas , who argued that advocates of eugenics greatly over-estimate the influence of biology, [40] and Scottish tuberculosis pioneer and author Halliday Sutherland.
Ward's article " Eugenics, Euthenics, and Eudemics ", Chesterton's book Eugenics and Other Evils , and Boas' article " Eugenics " published in The Scientific Monthly were all harshly critical of the rapidly growing movement. Sutherland identified eugenists as a major obstacle to the eradication and cure of tuberculosis in his address "Consumption: Its Cause and Cure", [41] and criticism of eugenists and Neo- Malthusians in his book Birth Control led to a writ for libel from the eugenist Marie Stopes. Several biologists were also antagonistic to the eugenics movement, including Lancelot Hogben.
Fisher expressed skepticism in the belief that sterilization of "defectives" would lead to the disappearance of undesirable genetic traits. Among institutions, the Catholic Church was an opponent of state-enforced sterilizations. As a social movement, eugenics reached its greatest popularity in the early decades of the 20th century, when it was practiced around the world and promoted by governments, institutions, and influential individuals.
Many countries enacted [47] various eugenics policies, including: Adolf Hitler had praised and incorporated eugenic ideas in Mein Kampf in and emulated eugenic legislation for the sterilization of "defectives" that had been pioneered in the United States once he took power. By the end of World War II , many discriminatory eugenics laws were abandoned, having become associated with Nazi Germany.
Wells , who had called for "the sterilization of failures" in , [51] stated in his book The Rights of Man: Or What are we fighting for? During the ten years President Alberto Fujimori led Peru from to , 2, persons were allegedly involuntarily sterilized. Developments in genetic , genomic , and reproductive technologies at the end of the 20th century have raised numerous questions regarding the ethical status of eugenics, effectively creating a resurgence of interest in the subject.
Some, such as UC Berkeley sociologist Troy Duster , claim that modern genetics is a back door to eugenics.
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He believes that it is not physically different from breeding domestic animals for traits such as speed or herding skill. Dawkins felt that enough time had elapsed to at least ask just what the ethical differences were between breeding for ability versus training athletes or forcing children to take music lessons, though he could think of persuasive reasons to draw the distinction.
In October , the United Nations' International Bioethics Committee wrote that the ethical problems of human genetic engineering should not be confused with the ethical problems of the 20th century eugenics movements. However, it is still problematic because it challenges the idea of human equality and opens up new forms of discrimination and stigmatization for those who do not want, or cannot afford, the technology.
Transhumanism is often associated with eugenics, although most transhumanists holding similar views nonetheless distance themselves from the term "eugenics" preferring " germinal choice " or " reprogenetics " [67] to avoid having their position confused with the discredited theories and practices of earlyth-century eugenic movements. Prenatal screening can be considered a form of contemporary eugenics because it may lead to abortions of children with undesirable traits.
The term eugenics and its modern field of study were first formulated by Francis Galton in , [69] drawing on the recent work of his half-cousin Charles Darwin. The origins of the concept began with certain interpretations of Mendelian inheritance and the theories of August Weismann. Historically, the term eugenics has referred to everything from prenatal care for mothers to forced sterilization and euthanasia.
Haldane wrote that "the motor bus, by breaking up inbred village communities, was a powerful eugenic agent. Edwin Black , journalist and author of War Against the Weak , claims eugenics is often deemed a pseudoscience because what is defined as a genetic improvement of a desired trait is often deemed a cultural choice rather than a matter that can be determined through objective scientific inquiry. Historically, this aspect of eugenics was tainted with scientific racism and pseudoscience. Early eugenists were mostly concerned with factors of perceived intelligence that often correlated strongly with social class.
Eugenics also had a place in medicine. In his lecture "Darwinism, Medical Progress and Eugenics", Karl Pearson said that everything concerning eugenics fell into the field of medicine.
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He basically placed the two words as equivalents. He was supported in part by the fact that Francis Galton, the father of eugenics, also had medical training. Eugenic policies have been conceptually divided into two categories. Possible approaches include financial and political stimuli, targeted demographic analyses, in vitro fertilization, egg transplants, and cloning.
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Negative eugenics aimed to eliminate, through sterilization or segregation, those deemed physically, mentally, or morally "undesirable". This includes abortions, sterilization, and other methods of family planning. Jon Entine claims that eugenics simply means "good genes" and using it as synonym for genocide is an "all-too-common distortion of the social history of genetics policy in the United States".
According to Richard Lynn , eugenics may be divided into two main categories based on the ways in which the methods of eugenics can be applied. The first major challenge to conventional eugenics based upon genetic inheritance was made in by Thomas Hunt Morgan. He demonstrated the event of genetic mutation occurring outside of inheritance involving the discovery of the hatching of a fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster with white eyes from a family with red eyes.
The heterozygote test is used for the early detection of recessive hereditary diseases, allowing for couples to determine if they are at risk of passing genetic defects to a future child. Recessive traits can be severely reduced, but never eliminated unless the complete genetic makeup of all members of the pool was known, as aforementioned. As only very few undesirable traits, such as Huntington's disease, are dominant, it could be argued [ by whom?
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There are examples of eugenic acts that managed to lower the prevalence of recessive diseases, although not influencing the prevalence of heterozygote carriers of those diseases. The elevated prevalence of certain genetically transmitted diseases among the Ashkenazi Jewish population Tay—Sachs , cystic fibrosis , Canavan's disease , and Gaucher's disease , has been decreased in current populations by the application of genetic screening. Pleiotropy occurs when one gene influences multiple, seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits , an example being phenylketonuria , which is a human disease that affects multiple systems but is caused by one gene defect.
Pekalski uses the example of a coercive government eugenics program that prohibits people with myopia from breeding but has the unintended consequence of also selecting against high intelligence since the two go together. Eugenic policies could also lead to loss of genetic diversity , in which case a culturally accepted "improvement" of the gene pool could very likely—as evidenced in numerous instances in isolated island populations —result in extinction due to increased vulnerability to disease, reduced ability to adapt to environmental change, and other factors both known and unknown.
A long-term, species-wide eugenics plan might lead to a scenario similar to this because the elimination of traits deemed undesirable would reduce genetic diversity by definition. Miller claims that, in any one generation, any realistic program should make only minor changes in a fraction of the gene pool, giving plenty of time to reverse direction if unintended consequences emerge, reducing the likelihood of the elimination of desirable genes. While the science of genetics has increasingly provided means by which certain characteristics and conditions can be identified and understood, given the complexity of human genetics, culture, and psychology, at this point no agreed objective means of determining which traits might be ultimately desirable or undesirable.
Some diseases such as sickle-cell disease and cystic fibrosis respectively confer immunity to malaria and resistance to cholera when a single copy of the recessive allele is contained within the genotype of the individual. Reducing the instance of sickle-cell disease genes in Africa where malaria is a common and deadly disease could indeed have extremely negative net consequences.
However, some genetic diseases cause people to consider some elements of eugenics. Societal and political consequences of eugenics call for a place in the discussion on the ethics behind the eugenics movement. Advances in science have changed eugenics.
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In the past, eugenics had more to do with sterilization and enforced reproduction laws. With this change, however, there are ethical concerns which lack adequate attention, and which must be addressed before eugenic policies can be properly implemented in the future. Sterilized individuals, for example, could volunteer for the procedure, albeit under incentive or duress, or at least voice their opinion. The unborn fetus on which these new eugenic procedures are performed cannot speak out, as the fetus lacks the voice to consent or to express his or her opinion.
A common criticism of eugenics is that "it inevitably leads to measures that are unethical". In his book Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age , environmental ethicist Bill McKibben argued at length against germinal choice technology and other advanced biotechnological strategies for human enhancement. He writes that it would be morally wrong for humans to tamper with fundamental aspects of themselves or their children in an attempt to overcome universal human limitations, such as vulnerability to aging , maximum life span and biological constraints on physical and cognitive ability.
Attempts to "improve" themselves through such manipulation would remove limitations that provide a necessary context for the experience of meaningful human choice. He claims that human lives would no longer seem meaningful in a world where such limitations could be overcome with technology.
Even the goal of using germinal choice technology for clearly therapeutic purposes should be relinquished, since it would inevitably produce temptations to tamper with such things as cognitive capacities. He argues that it is possible for societies to benefit from renouncing particular technologies, using as examples Ming China , Tokugawa Japan and the contemporary Amish. Some, for example Nathaniel C. Comfort from Johns Hopkins University , claim that the change from state-led reproductive-genetic decision-making to individual choice has moderated the worst abuses of eugenics by transferring the decision-making from the state to the patient and their family.
In a co-authored publication by Keele University, they stated that "[e]ugenics doesn't seem always to be immoral, and so the fact that PGD, and other forms of selective reproduction, might sometimes technically be eugenic, isn't sufficient to show that they're wrong. In their book published in , From Chance to Choice: Genetics and Justice , bioethicists Allen Buchanan, Dan Brock, Norman Daniels and Daniel Wikler argued that liberal societies have an obligation to encourage as wide an adoption of eugenic enhancement technologies as possible so long as such policies do not infringe on individuals' reproductive rights or exert undue pressures on prospective parents to use these technologies in order to maximize public health and minimize the inequalities that may result from both natural genetic endowments and unequal access to genetic enhancements.
Original position , a hypothetical situation developed by American philosopher John Rawls , has been used as an argument for negative eugenics. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For the album by Malignancy, see Eugenics album. Alternative medicine Quackery Health fraud History of alternative medicine Rise of modern medicine Pseudoscience Antiscience Skepticism Skeptical movement.